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That is infection with normal wbc order nitrofurantoin amex, they change shape and stick to the vessel wall antibiotic cipro purchase nitrofurantoin 50 mg free shipping, each other antibiotics penicillin allergy cheap 50mg nitrofurantoin mastercard, and red blood cells antibiotic you can't drink alcohol best 100mg nitrofurantoin. If this occurs pathologically-that is, in a normal vessel-it leads to a thrombosis, ultimately occluding the vessel. The middle cerebral artery on the left side is the most commonly reported site for an occlusion. Research has shown that blood clot formation most frequently stems from abnormality within the vessel wall and less frequently from an abnormality of the blood itself (Brown, Baird, & Shatz, 1986). If a thrombus forms and blocks the flow of blood to the brain, a cerebral infarction occurs. The area of the brain in which this occlusion occurs depends on the size of the blood clot. Onset of cerebral hemorrhage is abrupt and usually occurs during waking hours, presumably because the person is more active and thus has a higher blood pressure. Although the severity may vary from a small, symptomless bleed to massive hemorrhage leading to sudden death, prognosis for cerebral hemorrhage is usually poor, especially if the patient is unconscious for more than 48 hours. A hemorrhage usually occurs when a weak spot in a blood vessel, called an aneurysm, ruptures. Such hemorrhages are usually massive, cause the most severe damage structurally, and often result in death. A large, space-occupying bleed may discharge itself through the ventricles and can be detected using a spinal tap. Often alterations in consciousness accompany hemorrhages, ranging from disorientation to coma. Severe motor and sensory deficits are also usually present, although the degree of deficits depends on the speed and extent of the bleed. Hemorrhages occur most commonly in brain regions that are susceptible to the presence of aneurysms. Those include the putamen (50%), cerebral white matter (16%), thalamus (12%), pons (8%), cerebellum (8%), and caudate nucleus (6%) (Barnett, Mohr, Stein, Yatsu, 1986). People with long-standing hypertension and diabetes often have occlusions of small vessels, called lacunar infarctions (derived from Latin lacuna, meaning "hole"), because the infarctions are generally small and round. Embolism the term embolism (derived from Greek embolos, meaning "plug" or "wedge") refers to a blood clot that has traveled from one part of the body to another. Sometimes a piece of plaque originally formed in the heart can "break" off into the blood circulation and travel to the brain. If the blockage is not relieved rapidly, the brain area served by that artery dies of infarction. Embolism are often (up to 33%) associated with a condition known as atrial fibrillation, an arrhythmia of the heart. Research has recently established that cardiac surgery (such as valve replacement) may potentially contribute to cerebral emboli. When a traveling blood clot or embolism lodges in a distal intracranial branch of a blood vessel, it may block blood flow to specific parts of the brain, so a cerebral infarction occurs. At younger ages, embolic strokes are more prevalent than thrombotic strokes and are more likely to involve the anterior areas of the brain. In this type of hemorrhage, a defective artery bursts and floods the surrounding brain tissue with blood. Intracerebral hemorrhages most often accompany hypertension and result in deficits localized to either the left or right hemisphere. Large hemorrhages not only destroy brain tissue, particularly if the bleed continues, but also displace vital brain centers, which may prove fatal. Less serious hemorrhages may disrupt the integrity of adjacent brain tissue without destroying it and produce highly localized symptoms. When the bleeding does cease, there is usually no recurrence from the same site, a situation unlike that of a bleed resulting from an aneurysm.
Diseases
These are well-known features that have been investigated from various angles over the decades antibiotics for sinus infection clarithromycin cheap nitrofurantoin 50 mg with amex. Zero Signs In various systems of signs antibiotics for dog acne order nitrofurantoin 100mg overnight delivery, notably in language antibiotic resistant salmonella order nitrofurantoin mastercard, a sign vehicle can some times - when the contextual conditions are appropriate - sig nify by its very absence antibiotics for uti doxycycline cheapest nitrofurantoin, occur, that is, in ZlffO form. Pohl (1 968: 34-5), for instance, erroneously re m arks that civilian clothing functions as a zero when worn in a context of uniforms; but this confounds the unmarked/marked opposi tion with the realized/zero o pposi ti on. The existence of zero forms in various systems of c om - Six Species of Signs 41 m unication does not, therefore, vitiate the classic bipartite model of the sign. Among the principal questions that have occupied most stu den ts of the verbal sign, three have seemed basic and inescapable: How do particular sign tokens re fer What precisely lies at the heart of the distinction between the relation of reference, or deno tation, and the relation of meaning, or sense, or designation. A fourth question about the relation of meaning and use could also be added (Wells 1 954). Analytic philosophers, such as Carnap (1 942), typically assign the theory of truth and the the ory of logical deduction to semantics, on the ground that truth and logical consequence are concepts based on designation, and hence seman tic concepts. The term zoosemiotics was coined in 1 963 to extend the theory of meaning so as to account for presumably corresponding designative processes among the speechless crea tures (Sebeok 1 972a: 80). This also underlies the mechan ism involved in lying, which - certain opinions notwithstanding - cor responds to various forms of deception found throughout the animal kingdom. I n what follows, the six species of signs that seem to occur most frequently in con temporary semiotics will be discussed, provisionally rede- Six Species of Signs 43 fin ed, and illustrated not only from anthroposemiotic systems (i. But it is equally im portant to grasp that the hierarchic principle is inherent in the architecture of any species of sign. For instance, a verbal symbol, such as an imperative, is commonly also endowed wi th a signal value. An emblem, which is a subspecies of symbol, may be partly iconic, such as the flag of the United States, since its seven red horizontal stripes al ternating with six white ones stand for each founding col ony, whereas i ts fifty white stars in the single blue can ton corre spond to each state in the Union. A primarily indexical sign, like a clock, acquires a discernible symbolic conte nt in addition if the timepiece happens to be Big Ben. To recapi tulate, aspec ts of a sign necessarily co-occur in an envi ron men t-sensitive hierarchy. Since all signs, of course, e n ter into complex syn tagmatic as well as paradigmatic contrasts and opposi tions, it is their place both in the web of a concre the text and the 44 Signs: An I n troduc tion to Semiotics network of an abstract system that is decisive as to which aspec t will p redominate in a given context at a particular moment, a fact which leads directly to the probl e m of levels, so familiar to linguis tics - being an absolute prerequisi the for any typology - but as yet far from developed in the other branches of semiotics. This impor tan t issue (see Lotman and Uspenskij 1 973; Meletinsky and Segal 1 9 7 1) can only be pointe d out here. The sign is legi timately, if loosely, labelled after the aspect that ranks predominan t. Signal The signal is a sign which mechanically (naturally) or conven tion;:tHy (artificially) tI;iggers some reaction on the part of a receiver. Note that the receiver can be either a machine or an o rganism, conceivably, even a personified supernatural (Sebeok 1 9 72b: 5 1 4). A most interesting and productive re-examination of the con c e p t of signal is to be found in pazukhin (1 972). His argument and resultant definition, which resembles, but is not identical with, the one given above, rest on the development of a series of oppo sitions, stemming fro m the need to distinguish the physical, or technological, n o tion of signal fro m the one prevalen t in the hu m anities and social scie nces - briefly, from a purely semiotic conception; and the need, on the one hand, to separate physical p henomen a which are signals from the class of non-signals, while, on the o ther hand, to discriminate signals from signs. A more Six Species of Signs 45 se rious error is to forget that one must constantly deal with aspects of signs: to repeat, a verbal command is very likely to have both a sym bol-aspect and a signal-aspect, and the sign in question will os cillate between the two poles according to the context of its d elivery. I t may be well to recall what Buhler did say about the signal within the framework of his model. By contrast, the symptom has to do with the source, whose inner behaviour it expresses; and the symbol relates to the designation (Buhler 1 934: 28). I n m y opinion, i Us essen tial, first of all, t o realize that the relation o f signal t o sign is that o f a marked category to a n unmarked o n e, that i s, precisely that o f a species t o a genus to which it belongs, as Buhler also claimed. Secondly, pazukhin introduces and discusses in detail what he calls two m odes of control, both of which are inter actions based on the idea of causal relationship: direct co n trol and block-and-release control. All dynamical action, or action by brute force, physical or psychical, either takes place between two subjects. Signaling activity, in its simplest form, is produced by an individual organism; it represen ts information; it is mediated by a physical carrier, and it is perceived and responded to by one or m ore individuals. Like the stimulus even t, of which signalling behaviour is a special case, this kind of behaviour releases more energy than is used in signaling.
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J We ought also to be mindful bacteria have nucleus purchase 50 mg nitrofurantoin with visa, in this connection antibiotic quotes order nitrofurantoin cheap online, of the many mul ti-sensory iconic rep resen tations that pervade human and other animal existence i n everyday life virus 68 in michigan buy nitrofurantoin 50 mg visa. Contemplation of the icon sooner or later tends to turn from legitimately semiotic concerns antibiotics for acne that won't affect birth control buy nitrofurantoin on line amex, in the technical sense, to in trac ta ble, indeed mind-boggling, philosophical problems of identity, Iconic Signs 1 09 analogy, resemblance, and con trast (Ayer 1 968: 1 5 1), similarity and dissimilarity, arbitrarin ess and motivation, geometry and topology, n ature and culture, space and time, life and death. The essential features of iconicity can be summarized as follows (see also Bouissac et al. The tendency of ideas to consort with one another because of similari ty became a pow erful principle for explaining many men tal operations, and thus an importan t chapter in the history of ideas, where the story was, as it still is, retold with infinite variations. The transformation of deiconization is fre que n t; the reverse process of iconization more seldom encoun tered. It is plausible to assume th at th ere may be a diach ronic tendency toward an equilibrium in mixed syste ms of signs (such as gesture-languages used in some deaf communities). Iconic signs are found throughout the phylogenetic series, in all modali ties as circumscribed by th e sense organs by wh ich mem bers of a given species are able to inform th emselves about th eir e nvironment. Unsolved riddles concerning th is pervasive mode of produci ng, storing, and transmi tting iconic sign tokens abound. Their solution awaits the adven t of new an alytical tools, th e most promising among which by far - for it sh ows how th e p ro cess of copying ope rates through out th e molecular level, governs perceptio n, imbues the communicative systems of animals as well as of human s, and constitutes a fundamen tal prin ciple of sociobi ology, in brief, is capable of in tegrating globally far-re ach ing problems of a universal charac ter involving mu tual dynam i c rela tions between signifier and signified (Thorn 1 974: 245) - are likely to come from catastrophe theory. I, progress of the field with much more modest restrain t, both departing from a stric tly linguistic base and making constan t refer ence back to linguistic standards, but wholly with a view to the fu ture. Although Saussure n ever used the term, he did provide, as a passing example of an iconic sign, the scales of justice (Saussure 1 967 [1 9 1 6]) represe nting the equilibrium between sin and pun ishment. The ac tual provenance of his ideas about the typology of signs remains a tan talizing mystery. He appeared to have evinced no special interest in iconicity, and although his Fran co-Swiss suc cessor, Bally (1 939), did so to a limited exte n t, our common fund of knowledge about th e theory of signs an d symbols has not been materially e nhanced in the Saussurean traditio n. Th at is to say, an animal is con stan tly informed and impelled by mean ing-bearing sign vehicles designed to release pertinent motor reflexes (irms), such as approach (say, toward a prey) or with drawal (say, from a predator), or surrogate verbal responses in the human, as in a transitive subject-verb-object sen tence, a syntactic pattern wh ich can be viewed as a temporal transcription of a bio logical even t in space-time, predation, as its arche typal paradigm. Th orn (1 975: 73) has 1 12 Signs: An In troduction to Semiotics extended this line of reasoning to humans, who, he says, by th e ac t of n aming have replaced iconic representations of space-time interac tions with symbols. In countless instances, images appear naturally, but copies of this sort are ordinarily devoid of semiotic value - a person s shadow cast upon the ground, a shape reflected in water, a foo t imprinted in sand. Such everyday spatial images are necessarily endowed with certain physical, geometric properties, but th ey attain semiotic status only under special circumstances. For a shadow to be cast, as in th e first example, the model must be illu minated by a luminous source, the ligh t hitting the body, thu s defining its shadow. In the second example, a specular image is similarly formed in th e reflecting surface. In neither example is the resulting image permanent: it is bound to vanish with the dis appearance of the model (o r luminous source). The footprint does not necessarily decay whe n th e foot is wi thdrawn (or the sun goes under): the formative stimulus alters the equilibrium of the receptor system wh e n impressing the shape o f the model; here the image becomes a memory trace (Sakitt 1 975). The process involved is foreshadowed by the kind of inorganic local explosion that occurs in photo graphic emulsification. At the other end of the ontogenetic ladder of life, Th om invites us to consider the phenomenon of perception: this can be regarded as a modification of dynamic competence by the sensory impact of external reality, very much as Socrates had instructed Theaetetus. Any compe the n t syste m, for exam ple, the mechanical and hydrodynamic components of cochlear partition and the acoustic cortex, or the re tina and the visual cortex, e tc. In all interactions between th e two indispensable moieties of the sign, the relation of signified to signifier must obey this universal flux: the signified engenders the sign ifier in an eternal process of branching. But the signifier re engenders the signified each time that we in terpre t the sign. In bio logical terms, th is is to say th at the descendan t as signifier can become the pare n t as signified, given the lapse of one generation. Their sh ared scien tific instrument for the inven tion and discovery of new truths, as well as their device for reordering old ones, is a branch of mathematics capable of dealing with discontin uous and divergen t phenomena, a special part of the theory of sin gularities. These two figures of charismatic depth bracket a cen tury of more or less pedestrian divagations about the sign, as well as occasionally inspired extensions and applications of semi otic notions ove r most parts of the verbal and nonverbal domains.
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